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make distinctions

  • 1 make distinctions

    Экономика: делать различия

    Универсальный англо-русский словарь > make distinctions

  • 2 make\ distinctions

    English-Estonian dictionary > make\ distinctions

  • 3 to make distinctions

    English-russian dctionary of contemporary Economics > to make distinctions

  • 4 make

    робити, виготовляти; вносити (зміни, доповнення у документ)

    make a false report about an offence= make a false report about an offense робити фальшиве повідомлення про злочин ( до поліції тощо)

    make a false report about an offense= make a false report about an offence

    make a note of smb.'s statement — = make a note of statement

    make special security arrangements= make special security measures вживати спеціальні заходи безпеки

    - make a bill
    - make a bomb
    - make a cat's paw
    - make a charge
    - make a claim
    - make a code
    - make a compensation
    - make a complaint
    - make a complaint to the UN
    - make a concession
    - make a condition
    - make a contract
    - make a contract with a client
    - make a copy
    - make a copy of the original
    - make a crime scene sketch
    - make a deal
    - make a death threat
    - make a decisions by majority
    - make a detainee talk
    - make a diplomatic demarche
    - make a draft law
    - make a false statement
    - make a fetish
    - make a fetish of the past
    - make a final ruling
    - make a full confession
    - make a gift
    - make a good lawyer
    - make a good title
    - make a joint statement
    - make a law
    - make a loan
    - make a mistake
    - make a moral choice
    - make a motion
    - make a narrow inquiry
    - make a narrow search
    - make a new will
    - make a normative decision
    - make a note of statement
    - make a part
    - make a payoff
    - make a penalty conditional
    - make a petition
    - make a plea in mitigation
    - make a poor shot
    - make a prisoner talk
    - make a proposal
    - make a protest
    - make a provision
    - make a public statement
    - make a quick get-away
    - make a raid
    - make a recommendation
    - make a revolt
    - make a round
    - make a search
    - make a shot at smth.
    - make a statement
    - make a statement for the press
    - make a temporary appointment
    - make a treaty
    - make a voluntary statement
    - make a will
    - make accountable
    - make additions
    - make alterations
    - make amends
    - make an affidavit
    - make an agreement
    - make an amendment
    - make an appeal
    - make an arrangement
    - make an arrest
    - make an attachment
    - make an attempt on the life
    - make an award
    - make an examination
    - make an example of an offender
    - make an inquiry
    - make an investigation
    - make an official statement
    - make an order
    - make appearance
    - make one's appearance
    - make arrangement
    - make arrangements
    - make arrest
    - make away
    - make away with oneself
    - make bail
    - make bankrupt
    - make blood test
    - make calculations
    - make charge
    - make child pornography
    - make clean breast of it
    - make clear
    - make compensation
    - make confession
    - make court
    - make crime
    - make default
    - make defence
    - make defense
    - make demands
    - make difficulties
    - make diplomatic overtures
    - make diplomatic sounding
    - make disturbance
    - make disturbances
    - make easy
    - make effort
    - make enforcement distinctions
    - make entrance
    - make equal
    - make escape
    - make one's escape
    - make escape by a back door
    - make fealty
    - make formal charges
    - make good
    - make good a deficiency
    - make good a delay
    - make good a loss
    - make good an omission
    - make good escape
    - make good losses
    - make handwriting sample
    - make handwriting samples
    - make illicit profits
    - make information secret
    - make insinuations
    - make known
    - make law
    - make laws
    - make less stringent
    - make mandatory
    - make moral choice
    - make more democratic
    - make more severe
    - make nil
    - make nil
    - make nil and void
    - make null
    - make null
    - make null and void
    - make oath
    - make off
    - make out
    - make out a document
    - make out an invoice
    - make out one's case
    - make overtures
    - make payment
    - make-peace
    - make peace
    - make penal
    - make pornography
    - make protest
    - make provision
    - make provisions in the law
    - make public
    - make public election results
    - make punishment fit the crime
    - make quietus
    - make regular
    - make regulation
    - make representations
    - make reservation
    - make restitution to the victim
    - make revolt
    - make safe
    - make safety regulations
    - make satisfaction
    - make secret
    - make secure
    - make senior appointments
    - make service upon the attorney
    - make sounding
    - make special security measures
    - make stronger
    - make supplementary examination
    - make supplementary inquiry
    - make sure
    - make tax policy more flexible
    - make territorial changes
    - make the bull's-eye
    - make the house
    - make threatening phone call
    - make threatening phone calls
    - make threats
    - make up a quarrel
    - make up a report
    - make-up pay
    - make use
    - make valid
    - make war

    English-Ukrainian law dictionary > make

  • 5 make enforcement distinctions

    Универсальный англо-русский словарь > make enforcement distinctions

  • 6 make invidious distinctions

    Универсальный англо-русский словарь > make invidious distinctions

  • 7 make enforcement distinctions

    English-Ukrainian law dictionary > make enforcement distinctions

  • 8 to make invidious distinctions

    izdarīt aizvainojošus salīdzinājumus

    English-Latvian dictionary > to make invidious distinctions

  • 9 distinction

    English-russian dctionary of contemporary Economics > distinction

  • 10 различие

    муж.
    1) distinction делать/проводить различие ≈ to make/draw a distinction
    2) (несходство, разница) difference различие во взглядах
    различи|е - с. distinction;
    не делать ~я между кем-л., чем-л. not discriminate between smb., smth., not make* distinctions between smb., smth. ;
    знаки ~я badges of rank;
    без ~я irrespective of, regardless of.

    Большой англо-русский и русско-английский словарь > различие

  • 11 Specialise

    v. trans.
    Make distinctions: Ar. and P. διακρνειν.
    Determine, fix: P. and V. ὁρίζειν, διορίζειν.
    Be a specialist in: P. ἐπαΐειν (gen.) (Plat.).

    Woodhouse English-Greek dictionary. A vocabulary of the Attic language > Specialise

  • 12 distinction

    ------------------------------------------------------------
    [English Word] distinction
    [English Plural] distinctions
    [Swahili Word] tafauti
    [Swahili Plural] tafauti
    [Part of Speech] noun
    [Class] 9/10
    ------------------------------------------------------------
    [English Word] distinction
    [English Plural] distinctions
    [Swahili Word] tofauti
    [Swahili Plural] tofauti
    [Part of Speech] noun
    [Class] 9/10
    ------------------------------------------------------------
    [English Word] distinction
    [English Plural] distinctions
    [Swahili Word] tunza
    [Swahili Plural] tunza
    [Part of Speech] noun
    [Class] 9/10
    ------------------------------------------------------------
    [English Word] distinction
    [English Plural] distinctions
    [Swahili Word] tunzo
    [Swahili Plural] tunzo
    [Part of Speech] noun
    [Class] 9/10
    ------------------------------------------------------------
    [English Word] distinction
    [English Plural] distinctions
    [Swahili Word] tuza
    [Swahili Plural] matuza
    [Part of Speech] noun
    [Class] 5/6
    ------------------------------------------------------------
    [English Word] distinction
    [English Plural] distinctions
    [Swahili Word] tuzo
    [Swahili Plural] matuzo
    [Part of Speech] noun
    [Class] 5/6
    ------------------------------------------------------------
    [English Word] distinction
    [Swahili Word] ukoka
    [Part of Speech] noun
    ------------------------------------------------------------
    [English Word] distinction
    [Swahili Word] ukuu
    [Part of Speech] noun
    ------------------------------------------------------------
    [English Word] distinction
    [Swahili Word] utunzo
    [Swahili Plural] tunzo
    [Part of Speech] noun
    [Class] 11/10
    ------------------------------------------------------------
    [English Word] distinction
    [Swahili Word] utunzo
    [Swahili Plural] matunzo
    [Part of Speech] noun
    [Class] 11/6
    ------------------------------------------------------------
    [English Word] distinction
    [English Plural] distinctions
    [Swahili Word] tunza
    [Swahili Plural] matunza
    [Part of Speech] noun
    [Class] 5/6
    ------------------------------------------------------------
    [English Word] distinction
    [English Plural] distinctions
    [Swahili Word] tunzo
    [Swahili Plural] matunzo
    [Part of Speech] noun
    [Class] 5/6
    ------------------------------------------------------------
    [English Word] distinction (mark of)
    [English Plural] distinctions
    [Swahili Word] maiza
    [Part of Speech] noun
    ------------------------------------------------------------
    [English Word] distinction (us. in external appearance)
    [English Plural] distinctions
    [Swahili Word] umbuji
    [Part of Speech] noun
    ------------------------------------------------------------
    [English Word] make a distinction
    [Swahili Word] -tofautisha
    [Part of Speech] verb
    [Swahili Example] ni lazima utofautishe kati ya mtu na mtu usiwaamini wote
    ------------------------------------------------------------
    [English Word] make a way
    [Swahili Word] -toboa
    [Part of Speech] verb
    ------------------------------------------------------------
    [English Word] place of distinction
    [English Plural] places of distinction
    [Swahili Word] mahali
    [Part of Speech] noun
    [Class] 6
    [English Example] I put him in a place, i.e. I treat him with distinction
    [Swahili Example] Namweka mahali
    [Note] figurative
    ------------------------------------------------------------
    [English Word] receive a special distinction
    [Swahili Word] -chunuka
    [Part of Speech] verb
    ------------------------------------------------------------

    English-Swahili dictionary > distinction

  • 13 distinction

    noun
    1) (making a difference) Unterscheidung, die

    by way of distinction, for distinction — zur Unterscheidung

    2) (difference) Unterschied, der

    make or draw a distinction between A and B — einen Unterschied zwischen A und B machen

    3)

    have the distinction of being... — [Person:] sich dadurch auszeichnen, dass man... ist

    4)

    gain or get a distinction in one's examination — das Examen mit Auszeichnung bestehen

    a scientist of distinction — ein Wissenschaftler von Rang [und Namen]

    * * *
    [-ʃən]
    1) ((the making of) a difference: He makes no distinction between male and female employees with regard to pay.) die Unterscheidung
    2) (a grade awarded that indicates outstanding ability or achievement: She passed her exams with distinction.) die Auszeichnung
    * * *
    dis·tinc·tion
    [dɪˈstɪŋ(k)ʃən]
    n
    1. (difference) Unterschied m ( between zwischen + dat)
    class \distinctions Klassenunterschiede pl
    \distinction without a difference künstlich geschaffener Unterschied, wo eigentlich gar keiner besteht
    clear [or sharp] \distinction deutlicher Unterschied
    to blur a \distinction Unterschiede verwischen
    to draw [or make] a \distinction between sth zwischen etw dat unterscheiden [o einen Unterschied machen
    2. no pl (eminence)
    of [great] \distinction von hohem Rang [o herausragender Bedeutung
    3. no pl (honour) Ehre f
    she has the \distinction of being one of the few people to... sie hat die Ehre, zu den wenigen Menschen zu gehören, die...
    to hold the dubious [or doubtful] \distinction of doing sth die etwas zweifelhafte Ehre besitzen, etw zu tun
    4. (award) Auszeichnung f
    to be granted a \distinction eine Auszeichnung verliehen bekommen
    with \distinction ausgezeichnet
    to gain a \distinction in sth in etw dat die bestmögliche Note bekommen
    to pass [an exam] with \distinction [ein Examen] mit Auszeichnung bestehen
    * * *
    [dI'stIŋkSən]
    n
    1) (= difference) Unterschied m; (= act of distinguishing) Unterscheidung f

    to make or draw a distinction (between two things) — (zwischen zwei Dingen) unterscheiden or einen Unterschied machen

    2) no pl (= preeminence) (hoher) Rang m, Distinktion f (dated geh); (= refinement) Vornehmheit f

    he has the distinction of being the oldest living personer zeichnet sich dadurch aus, dass er der älteste Mensch ist

    3) (SCH, UNIV: grade) Auszeichnung f

    he got a distinction in French —

    * * *
    distinction [dıˈstıŋkʃn] s
    1. Unterscheidung f:
    a distinction without a difference eine spitzfindige Unterscheidung, ein nur nomineller Unterschied
    2. Unterschied m:
    in distinction from im Unterschied zu, zum Unterschied von;
    draw ( oder make) a distinction between einen Unterschied machen oder unterscheiden zwischen (dat);
    without distinction ohne Unterschied, unterschiedslos;
    without distinction of person(s) ohne Unterschied der Person
    3. Unterscheidungsmerkmal n, Kennzeichen n
    4. Auszeichnung f:
    a) Ehrung f
    b) Ehrenzeichen n
    5. Ruf m, Ruhm m, Ehre f
    6. hervorragende Eigenschaft
    7. (hoher) Rang:
    of distinction von Rang (u. Namen)
    8. Vornehmheit f, Würde f
    * * *
    noun
    1) (making a difference) Unterscheidung, die

    by way of distinction, for distinction — zur Unterscheidung

    2) (difference) Unterschied, der

    make or draw a distinction between A and B — einen Unterschied zwischen A und B machen

    3)

    have the distinction of being... — [Person:] sich dadurch auszeichnen, dass man... ist

    4)

    gain or get a distinction in one's examination — das Examen mit Auszeichnung bestehen

    a scientist of distinction — ein Wissenschaftler von Rang [und Namen]

    * * *
    n.
    Auszeichnung f.
    Unterscheidung f.

    English-german dictionary > distinction

  • 14 distinction

    [dısʹtıŋ(k)ʃ(ə)n] n
    1. различение, распознавание; разграничение

    nice /fine/ distinction - умение тонко различать [см. тж. 2]

    2. разница, отличие, различие

    nice [vital] distinction - тонкое [существенное] различие [см. тж. 1]

    distinction of degree [of kind] - количественное [качественное] различие

    without distinction - без различия; без исключения; без разбора

    in distinction from smth. - в отличие от чего-л.

    a distinction without a difference - несущественное разграничение; кажущееся /искусственное/ различие

    to make /to draw/ a distinction between smth. - провести различие между чем-л.

    to make no distinction between traitors and spies - не делать никакого различия между предателями и шпионами

    to see no distinction between two things - не видеть разницы между двумя вещами

    3. отличительный признак; особенность, характерная черта

    the chief distinction of Egyptian sculpture - основная особенность египетской скульптуры

    4. 1) почтительное отношение, почёт; почесть

    to load smb. with distinctions - окружить кого-л. почётом

    to give /to grant/ smb. distinctions - оказывать кому-л. почести

    2) награда

    to confer a distinction on smb. - наградить кого-л.

    5. 1) знатность
    2) известность

    writer of distinction - популярный /выдающийся/ писатель

    3) оригинальность; индивидуальность, исключительность
    4) исключительность, безупречность

    НБАРС > distinction

  • 15 distinction

    dɪsˈtɪŋkʃən сущ.
    1) различение, распознавание;
    выделение, разграничение without distinction as to race, sex, or religionбез разграничения рас, пола или религиозных убеждений Syn: differentiation, discrimination, distinguishing, discerning
    2) отличие, различие all without distinction ≈ все без различия, без исключения clear-cut distinction ≈ явное различие dubious distinction ≈ сомнительное различие fine distinction, subtle distinction ≈ тонкое различие the distinction between 'imply' and 'infer' ≈ различие между 'imply' и 'infer' The jugglery of words was never more successful than in this distinction without a difference. ≈ Жонглирование словами никогда не приносило большего успеха, чем при этом кажущемся различии. draw a distinction make a distinction blur a distinction Syn: difference
    1.
    3) отличительная признак, отличительная особенность regional distinctions ≈ региональные особенности enjoy a distinction have a distinction hold a distinction
    4) уважение, признание, почтительное отношение;
    знак отличия, награда Some were beheaded with the sword, - a distinction reserved for persons of condition. ≈ Некоторые были обезглавлены с помощью меча - почесть, предназначенная для людей высокого положения. He won many distinctions. ≈ Он получил много наград.
    5) а) известность, популярность a politician of some distinction ≈ политик, обладающий определенной популярностью б) высокие качества, исключительность The book has more quality and distinction than four-fifths of the novels which come under our notice. ≈ Эта книга обладала высоким качеством и исключительностью, которых были лишены четыре пятых всех привлекших наше внимание романов. различение, распознавание;
    разграничение - nice /fine/ * умение тонко различать разница, отличие, различие - nice * тонкое различие - * in meaning различие в значении - * of degree количественное различие - without * без различия;
    без исключения;
    без разбора - in * from smth. в отличие от чего-л. - a * without a difference несущественное разграничение;
    кажущееся /искусственное/ различие - to make /to draw/ a * between smth. провести различие между чем-л. - to make no * between traitors and spies не делать никакого различия между предателями и шпионами - to see no * between two things не видеть разницы между двумя вещами отличительный признак;
    особенность, характерная черта - the chief * of Egyptian sculpture основная особенность египетской скульптуры почтительное отношение, почет;
    почесть - academic *s академические почести - to load smb. with *s окружить кого-л. почетом - to give /to grant/ smb. *s оказывать кому-л. почести награда - to confer a * on smb. наградить кого-л. знатность - person of * знатная особа известность - man of * известный человек - writer of * популярный /выдающийся/ писатель - to gain * приобрести известность оригинальность;
    индивидуальность, исключительность - * of style своеобразие стиля - the book has * в книге ощущается яркая индивидуальность, исключительность исключительность, безупречность - to serve with * безупречно служить - the book has * это замечательная книга all without ~ все без различия, без исключения distinction безупречность ~ высокие качества;
    известность;
    знатность;
    poet of distinction выдающийся, знаменитый поэт ~ известность ~ индивидуальность ~ исключительность ~ награда ~ оригинальность ~ особенность ~ отличие;
    знак отличия;
    mark of distinction знак отличия ~ отличие ~ отличительная особенность, оригинальность, индивидуальность;
    his style lacks distinction в его стиле нет индивидуальности ~ отличительный признак ~ почесть ~ почет ~ разграничение ~ различение;
    распознавание;
    разграничение ~ различение ~ различие, отличие;
    разница;
    nice distinction тонкое различие;
    a distinction without a difference искусственное, (только) кажущееся различие ~ различие ~ разница ~ распознавание ~ характерная черта ~ различие, отличие;
    разница;
    nice distinction тонкое различие;
    a distinction without a difference искусственное, (только) кажущееся различие ~ отличительная особенность, оригинальность, индивидуальность;
    his style lacks distinction в его стиле нет индивидуальности ~ отличие;
    знак отличия;
    mark of distinction знак отличия ~ различие, отличие;
    разница;
    nice distinction тонкое различие;
    a distinction without a difference искусственное, (только) кажущееся различие ~ высокие качества;
    известность;
    знатность;
    poet of distinction выдающийся, знаменитый поэт

    Большой англо-русский и русско-английский словарь > distinction

  • 16 near cash

    !
    гос. фин. The resource budget contains a separate control total for “near cash” expenditure, that is expenditure such as pay and current grants which impacts directly on the measure of the golden rule.
    This paper provides background information on the framework for the planning and control of public expenditure in the UK which has been operated since the 1998 Comprehensive Spending Review (CSR). It sets out the different classifications of spending for budgeting purposes and why these distinctions have been adopted. It discusses how the public expenditure framework is designed to ensure both sound public finances and an outcome-focused approach to public expenditure.
    The UK's public spending framework is based on several key principles:
    "
    consistency with a long-term, prudent and transparent regime for managing the public finances as a whole;
    " "
    the judgement of success by policy outcomes rather than resource inputs;
    " "
    strong incentives for departments and their partners in service delivery to plan over several years and plan together where appropriate so as to deliver better public services with greater cost effectiveness; and
    "
    the proper costing and management of capital assets to provide the right incentives for public investment.
    The Government sets policy to meet two firm fiscal rules:
    "
    the Golden Rule states that over the economic cycle, the Government will borrow only to invest and not to fund current spending; and
    "
    the Sustainable Investment Rule states that net public debt as a proportion of GDP will be held over the economic cycle at a stable and prudent level. Other things being equal, net debt will be maintained below 40 per cent of GDP over the economic cycle.
    Achievement of the fiscal rules is assessed by reference to the national accounts, which are produced by the Office for National Statistics, acting as an independent agency. The Government sets its spending envelope to comply with these fiscal rules.
    Departmental Expenditure Limits ( DEL) and Annually Managed Expenditure (AME)
    "
    Departmental Expenditure Limit ( DEL) spending, which is planned and controlled on a three year basis in Spending Reviews; and
    "
    Annually Managed Expenditure ( AME), which is expenditure which cannot reasonably be subject to firm, multi-year limits in the same way as DEL. AME includes social security benefits, local authority self-financed expenditure, debt interest, and payments to EU institutions.
    More information about DEL and AME is set out below.
    In Spending Reviews, firm DEL plans are set for departments for three years. To ensure consistency with the Government's fiscal rules departments are set separate resource (current) and capital budgets. The resource budget contains a separate control total for “near cash” expenditure, that is expenditure such as pay and current grants which impacts directly on the measure of the golden rule.
    To encourage departments to plan over the medium term departments may carry forward unspent DEL provision from one year into the next and, subject to the normal tests for tautness and realism of plans, may be drawn down in future years. This end-year flexibility also removes any incentive for departments to use up their provision as the year end approaches with less regard to value for money. For the full benefits of this flexibility and of three year plans to feed through into improved public service delivery, end-year flexibility and three year budgets should be cascaded from departments to executive agencies and other budget holders.
    Three year budgets and end-year flexibility give those managing public services the stability to plan their operations on a sensible time scale. Further, the system means that departments cannot seek to bid up funds each year (before 1997, three year plans were set and reviewed in annual Public Expenditure Surveys). So the credibility of medium-term plans has been enhanced at both central and departmental level.
    Departments have certainty over the budgetary allocation over the medium term and these multi-year DEL plans are strictly enforced. Departments are expected to prioritise competing pressures and fund these within their overall annual limits, as set in Spending Reviews. So the DEL system provides a strong incentive to control costs and maximise value for money.
    There is a small centrally held DEL Reserve. Support from the Reserve is available only for genuinely unforeseeable contingencies which departments cannot be expected to manage within their DEL.
    AME typically consists of programmes which are large, volatile and demand-led, and which therefore cannot reasonably be subject to firm multi-year limits. The biggest single element is social security spending. Other items include tax credits, Local Authority Self Financed Expenditure, Scottish Executive spending financed by non-domestic rates, and spending financed from the proceeds of the National Lottery.
    AME is reviewed twice a year as part of the Budget and Pre-Budget Report process reflecting the close integration of the tax and benefit system, which was enhanced by the introduction of tax credits.
    AME is not subject to the same three year expenditure limits as DEL, but is still part of the overall envelope for public expenditure. Affordability is taken into account when policy decisions affecting AME are made. The Government has committed itself not to take policy measures which are likely to have the effect of increasing social security or other elements of AME without taking steps to ensure that the effects of those decisions can be accommodated prudently within the Government's fiscal rules.
    Given an overall envelope for public spending, forecasts of AME affect the level of resources available for DEL spending. Cautious estimates and the AME margin are built in to these AME forecasts and reduce the risk of overspending on AME.
    Together, DEL plus AME sum to Total Managed Expenditure (TME). TME is a measure drawn from national accounts. It represents the current and capital spending of the public sector. The public sector is made up of central government, local government and public corporations.
    Resource and Capital Budgets are set in terms of accruals information. Accruals information measures resources as they are consumed rather than when the cash is paid. So for example the Resource Budget includes a charge for depreciation, a measure of the consumption or wearing out of capital assets.
    "
    Non cash charges in budgets do not impact directly on the fiscal framework. That may be because the national accounts use a different way of measuring the same thing, for example in the case of the depreciation of departmental assets. Or it may be that the national accounts measure something different: for example, resource budgets include a cost of capital charge reflecting the opportunity cost of holding capital; the national accounts include debt interest.
    "
    Within the Resource Budget DEL, departments have separate controls on:
    "
    Near cash spending, the sub set of Resource Budgets which impacts directly on the Golden Rule; and
    "
    The amount of their Resource Budget DEL that departments may spend on running themselves (e.g. paying most civil servants’ salaries) is limited by Administration Budgets, which are set in Spending Reviews. Administration Budgets are used to ensure that as much money as practicable is available for front line services and programmes. These budgets also help to drive efficiency improvements in departments’ own activities. Administration Budgets exclude the costs of frontline services delivered directly by departments.
    The Budget preceding a Spending Review sets an overall envelope for public spending that is consistent with the fiscal rules for the period covered by the Spending Review. In the Spending Review, the Budget AME forecast for year one of the Spending Review period is updated, and AME forecasts are made for the later years of the Spending Review period.
    The 1998 Comprehensive Spending Review ( CSR), which was published in July 1998, was a comprehensive review of departmental aims and objectives alongside a zero-based analysis of each spending programme to determine the best way of delivering the Government's objectives. The 1998 CSR allocated substantial additional resources to the Government's key priorities, particularly education and health, for the three year period from 1999-2000 to 2001-02.
    Delivering better public services does not just depend on how much money the Government spends, but also on how well it spends it. Therefore the 1998 CSR introduced Public Service Agreements (PSAs). Each major government department was given its own PSA setting out clear targets for achievements in terms of public service improvements.
    The 1998 CSR also introduced the DEL/ AME framework for the control of public spending, and made other framework changes. Building on the investment and reforms delivered by the 1998 CSR, successive spending reviews in 2000, 2002 and 2004 have:
    "
    provided significant increase in resources for the Government’s priorities, in particular health and education, and cross-cutting themes such as raising productivity; extending opportunity; and building strong and secure communities;
    " "
    enabled the Government significantly to increase investment in public assets and address the legacy of under investment from past decades. Departmental Investment Strategies were introduced in SR2000. As a result there has been a steady increase in public sector net investment from less than ¾ of a per cent of GDP in 1997-98 to 2¼ per cent of GDP in 2005-06, providing better infrastructure across public services;
    " "
    introduced further refinements to the performance management framework. PSA targets have been reduced in number over successive spending reviews from around 300 to 110 to give greater focus to the Government’s highest priorities. The targets have become increasingly outcome-focused to deliver further improvements in key areas of public service delivery across Government. They have also been refined in line with the conclusions of the Devolving Decision Making Review to provide a framework which encourages greater devolution and local flexibility. Technical Notes were introduced in SR2000 explaining how performance against each PSA target will be measured; and
    "
    not only allocated near cash spending to departments, but also – since SR2002 - set Resource DEL plans for non cash spending.
    To identify what further investments and reforms are needed to equip the UK for the global challenges of the decade ahead, on 19 July 2005 the Chief Secretary to the Treasury announced that the Government intends to launch a second Comprehensive Spending Review (CSR) reporting in 2007.
    A decade on from the first CSR, the 2007 CSR will represent a long-term and fundamental review of government expenditure. It will cover departmental allocations for 2008-09, 2009-10 and 2010 11. Allocations for 2007-08 will be held to the agreed figures already announced by the 2004 Spending Review. To provide a rigorous analytical framework for these departmental allocations, the Government will be taking forward a programme of preparatory work over 2006 involving:
    "
    an assessment of what the sustained increases in spending and reforms to public service delivery have achieved since the first CSR. The assessment will inform the setting of new objectives for the decade ahead;
    " "
    an examination of the key long-term trends and challenges that will shape the next decade – including demographic and socio-economic change, globalisation, climate and environmental change, global insecurity and technological change – together with an assessment of how public services will need to respond;
    " "
    to release the resources needed to address these challenges, and to continue to secure maximum value for money from public spending over the CSR period, a set of zero-based reviews of departments’ baseline expenditure to assess its effectiveness in delivering the Government’s long-term objectives; together with
    "
    further development of the efficiency programme, building on the cross cutting areas identified in the Gershon Review, to embed and extend ongoing efficiency savings into departmental expenditure planning.
    The 2007 CSR also offers the opportunity to continue to refine the PSA framework so that it drives effective delivery and the attainment of ambitious national standards.
    Public Service Agreements (PSAs) were introduced in the 1998 CSR. They set out agreed targets detailing the outputs and outcomes departments are expected to deliver with the resources allocated to them. The new spending regime places a strong emphasis on outcome targets, for example in providing for better health and higher educational standards or service standards. The introduction in SR2004 of PSA ‘standards’ will ensure that high standards in priority areas are maintained.
    The Government monitors progress against PSA targets, and departments report in detail twice a year in their annual Departmental Reports (published in spring) and in their autumn performance reports. These reports provide Parliament and the public with regular updates on departments’ performance against their targets.
    Technical Notes explain how performance against each PSA target will be measured.
    To make the most of both new investment and existing assets, there needs to be a coherent long term strategy against which investment decisions are taken. Departmental Investment Strategies (DIS) set out each department's plans to deliver the scale and quality of capital stock needed to underpin its objectives. The DIS includes information about the department's existing capital stock and future plans for that stock, as well as plans for new investment. It also sets out the systems that the department has in place to ensure that it delivers its capital programmes effectively.
    This document was updated on 19 December 2005.
    Near-cash resource expenditure that has a related cash implication, even though the timing of the cash payment may be slightly different. For example, expenditure on gas or electricity supply is incurred as the fuel is used, though the cash payment might be made in arrears on aquarterly basis. Other examples of near-cash expenditure are: pay, rental.Net cash requirement the upper limit agreed by Parliament on the cash which a department may draw from theConsolidated Fund to finance the expenditure within the ambit of its Request forResources. It is equal to the agreed amount of net resources and net capital less non-cashitems and working capital.Non-cash cost costs where there is no cash transaction but which are included in a body’s accounts (or taken into account in charging for a service) to establish the true cost of all the resourcesused.Non-departmental a body which has a role in the processes of government, but is not a government public body, NDPBdepartment or part of one. NDPBs accordingly operate at arm’s length from governmentMinisters.Notional cost of a cost which is taken into account in setting fees and charges to improve comparability with insuranceprivate sector service providers.The charge takes account of the fact that public bodies donot generally pay an insurance premium to a commercial insurer.the independent body responsible for collecting and publishing official statistics about theUK’s society and economy. (At the time of going to print legislation was progressing tochange this body to the Statistics Board).Office of Government an office of the Treasury, with a status similar to that of an agency, which aims to maximise Commerce, OGCthe government’s purchasing power for routine items and combine professional expertiseto bear on capital projects.Office of the the government department responsible for discharging the Paymaster General’s statutoryPaymaster General,responsibilities to hold accounts and make payments for government departments and OPGother public bodies.Orange bookthe informal title for Management of Risks: Principles and Concepts, which is published by theTreasury for the guidance of public sector bodies.Office for NationalStatistics, ONS60Managing Public Money
    ————————————————————————————————————————
    "
    GLOSSARYOverdraftan account with a negative balance.Parliament’s formal agreement to authorise an activity or expenditure.Prerogative powerspowers exercisable under the Royal Prerogative, ie powers which are unique to the Crown,as contrasted with common-law powers which may be available to the Crown on the samebasis as to natural persons.Primary legislationActs which have been passed by the Westminster Parliament and, where they haveappropriate powers, the Scottish Parliament and the Northern Ireland Assembly. Begin asBills until they have received Royal Assent.arrangements under which a public sector organisation contracts with a private sectorentity to construct a facility and provide associated services of a specified quality over asustained period. See annex 7.5.Proprietythe principle that patterns of resource consumption should respect Parliament’s intentions,conventions and control procedures, including any laid down by the PAC. See box 2.4.Public Accountssee Committee of Public Accounts.CommitteePublic corporationa trading body controlled by central government, local authority or other publiccorporation that has substantial day to day operating independence. See section 7.8.Public Dividend finance provided by government to public sector bodies as an equity stake; an alternative to Capital, PDCloan finance.Public Service sets out what the public can expect the government to deliver with its resources. EveryAgreement, PSAlarge government department has PSA(s) which specify deliverables as targets or aimsrelated to objectives.a structured arrangement between a public sector and a private sector organisation tosecure an outcome delivering good value for money for the public sector. It is classified tothe public or private sector according to which has more control.Rate of returnthe financial remuneration delivered by a particular project or enterprise, expressed as apercentage of the net assets employed.Regularitythe principle that resource consumption should accord with the relevant legislation, therelevant delegated authority and this document. See box 2.4.Request for the functional level into which departmental Estimates may be split. RfRs contain a number Resources, RfRof functions being carried out by the department in pursuit of one or more of thatdepartment’s objectives.Resource accountan accruals account produced in line with the Financial Reporting Manual (FReM).Resource accountingthe system under which budgets, Estimates and accounts are constructed in a similar wayto commercial audited accounts, so that both plans and records of expenditure allow in fullfor the goods and services which are to be, or have been, consumed – ie not just the cashexpended.Resource budgetthe means by which the government plans and controls the expenditure of resources tomeet its objectives.Restitutiona legal concept which allows money and property to be returned to its rightful owner. Ittypically operates where another person can be said to have been unjustly enriched byreceiving such monies.Return on capital the ratio of profit to capital employed of an accounting entity during an identified period.employed, ROCEVarious measures of profit and of capital employed may be used in calculating the ratio.Public Privatepartnership, PPPPrivate Finance Initiative, PFIParliamentaryauthority61Managing Public Money
    "
    ————————————————————————————————————————
    GLOSSARYRoyal charterthe document setting out the powers and constitution of a corporation established underprerogative power of the monarch acting on Privy Council advice.Second readingthe second formal time that a House of Parliament may debate a bill, although in practicethe first substantive debate on its content. If successful, it is deemed to denoteParliamentary approval of the principle of the proposed legislation.Secondary legislationlaws, including orders and regulations, which are made using powers in primary legislation.Normally used to set out technical and administrative provision in greater detail thanprimary legislation, they are subject to a less intense level of scrutiny in Parliament.European legislation is,however,often implemented in secondary legislation using powers inthe European Communities Act 1972.Service-level agreement between parties, setting out in detail the level of service to be performed.agreementWhere agreements are between central government bodies, they are not legally a contractbut have a similar function.Shareholder Executive a body created to improve the government’s performance as a shareholder in businesses.Spending reviewsets out the key improvements in public services that the public can expect over a givenperiod. It includes a thorough review of departmental aims and objectives to find the bestway of delivering the government’s objectives, and sets out the spending plans for the givenperiod.State aidstate support for a domestic body or company which could distort EU competition and sois not usually allowed. See annex 4.9.Statement of Excessa formal statement detailing departments’ overspends prepared by the Comptroller andAuditor General as a result of undertaking annual audits.Statement on Internal an annual statement that Accounting Officers are required to make as part of the accounts Control, SICon a range of risk and control issues.Subheadindividual elements of departmental expenditure identifiable in Estimates as single cells, forexample cell A1 being administration costs within a particular line of departmental spending.Supplyresources voted by Parliament in response to Estimates, for expenditure by governmentdepartments.Supply Estimatesa statement of the resources the government needs in the coming financial year, and forwhat purpose(s), by which Parliamentary authority is sought for the planned level ofexpenditure and income.Target rate of returnthe rate of return required of a project or enterprise over a given period, usually at least a year.Third sectorprivate sector bodies which do not act commercially,including charities,social and voluntaryorganisations and other not-for-profit collectives. See annex 7.7.Total Managed a Treasury budgeting term which covers all current and capital spending carried out by the Expenditure,TMEpublic sector (ie not just by central departments).Trading fundan organisation (either within a government department or forming one) which is largely orwholly financed from commercial revenue generated by its activities. Its Estimate shows itsnet impact, allowing its income from receipts to be devoted entirely to its business.Treasury Minutea formal administrative document drawn up by the Treasury, which may serve a wide varietyof purposes including seeking Parliamentary approval for the use of receipts asappropriations in aid, a remission of some or all of the principal of voted loans, andresponding on behalf of the government to reports by the Public Accounts Committee(PAC).62Managing Public Money
    ————————————————————————————————————————
    GLOSSARY63Managing Public MoneyValue for moneythe process under which organisation’s procurement, projects and processes aresystematically evaluated and assessed to provide confidence about suitability, effectiveness,prudence,quality,value and avoidance of error and other waste,judged for the public sectoras a whole.Virementthe process through which funds are moved between subheads such that additionalexpenditure on one is met by savings on one or more others.Votethe process by which Parliament approves funds in response to supply Estimates.Voted expenditureprovision for expenditure that has been authorised by Parliament. Parliament ‘votes’authority for public expenditure through the Supply Estimates process. Most expenditureby central government departments is authorised in this way.Wider market activity activities undertaken by central government organisations outside their statutory duties,using spare capacity and aimed at generating a commercial profit. See annex 7.6.Windfallmonies received by a department which were not anticipated in the spending review.
    ————————————————————————————————————————

    Англо-русский экономический словарь > near cash

  • 17 distinction

    [dɪ'stɪŋkʃ(ə)n]
    сущ.
    1) различение, распознавание; разграничение

    without distinction as to race, sex, or religion — без разграничения рас, пола или религиозных убеждений

    Syn:
    2) отличие, различие

    all without distinction — все без различия, без исключения

    fine / subtle distinction — тонкое различие

    blurred distinction — неясное, смутное различие

    to draw / make a distinction — различать

    Syn:
    3) отличительный признак, отличительная особенность

    to enjoy / have / hold a distinction — иметь отличительный признак, отличаться чем-л.

    4) уважение, признание, почтительное отношение

    Some were beheaded with the sword, - a distinction reserved for persons of condition. — Некоторые были обезглавлены – такой почёт был оказан людям высокого положения.

    5) знак отличия, награда

    He won many distinctions. — Он получил много наград.

    7) известность, популярность
    8) высокие качества, исключительность

    The book has more quality and distinction than four-fifths of the novels which come under our notice. — Эта книга лучше, чем четыре пятых всех привлекающих наше внимание романов.

    Англо-русский современный словарь > distinction

  • 18 cut

    cut
    A n
    1 ( incision) gen entaille f ; ( in surgery) incision f ; to make a cut in faire une entaille dans [cloth, wood] ; [surgeon] faire une incision dans [flesh] ;
    2 ( wound) coupure f ; to get a cut from sth se couper sur qch ;
    3 ( hairstyle) coupe f ; a cut and blow-dry une coupe-brushing ;
    4 ( share) part f ; a cut of the profits/takings une part des bénéfices/recettes ; she takes a 25% cut of the total sum elle prend 25% de la somme globale ;
    5 ( reduction) réduction f (in de) ; a cut in prices, a price cut une baisse des prix ; a cut in the interest/unemployment rate une baisse du taux d'intérêt/de chômage ; job cuts suppression f d'emplois ; he agreed to take a cut in salary il a accepté qu'on lui diminue son salaire ;
    6 ( trim) to give [sth] a cut couper [hair, grass] ;
    7 Culin morceau m ; fillet is the most tender cut le filet est le morceau le plus tendre ;
    8 ( shape) ( of gem) taille f ; (of suit, jacket) coupe f ;
    9 Cin ( removal of footage) coupure f ; ( shot) plan m de raccord (from de ; to à) ; final cut final cut m ;
    10 ( in editing) coupure f ; to make cuts in faire des coupures dans [article, story] ;
    11 ( shorter route) raccourci m ;
    12 Art, Print cliché m, gravure f ;
    13 Sport coup m tranchant ;
    14 Mus ( track) morceau m ; classic cuts from the 60's des morceaux classiques des années 60.
    B vtr ( p prés - tt- ; prét, pp cut)
    1 ( slice) couper [bread, fabric, metal, paper, slice, wood] ; faire [hole, slit] ; to cut sth out of couper qch dans [fabric] ; découper qch dans [magazine] ; to cut sth in half ou in two couper qch en deux ; to cut sth into quarters/slices/pieces couper qch en quartiers/tranches/morceaux ; to cut sth to shreds ou ribbons mettre [qch] en pièces [fabric, document] ; my hands were cut to shreds mes mains étaient tout abîmées ;
    2 ( sever) couper [rope, ribbon, throat, wire] ; ouvrir [vein] ; couper [flower, stem] ; faucher, couper [wheat] ; fig rompre [ties, links] ;
    3 ( carve out) faire [notch] ; creuser [channel, tunnel] ; graver [initials] (in dans) ; to cut sth open ouvrir [packet, sack] ; [surgeon] ouvrir [chest, stomach] ; to cut one's way through se frayer un chemin dans [undergrowth] ;
    4 ( wound) lit ( once) blesser [victim] ; ( repeatedly) taillader [victim] ; fig [remark] blesser [person] ; to cut one's finger/lip se couper le doigt/la lèvre ; the rocks cut their feet les rochers leur ont tailladé les pieds ; the wind cut me like a knife le vent était mordant ;
    5 ( trim) couper [grass, hair] ; tailler [hedge] ; to cut one's fringe/finger nails se couper la frange/les ongles ; to have one's hair cut se faire couper les cheveux ;
    6 (shape, fashion) tailler [gem, marble, wood] ; découper [pastry] ; tailler [suit] ; [locksmith] refaire [key] ; to cut sth into triangles/strips couper qch en triangles/bandes ; to cut sth into the shape of a bird découper qch en forme d'oiseau ;
    7 ( liberate) to cut sb from sth dégager qn de [wreckage] ; to cut sb/sth free ou loose libérer qn/qch (from de) ;
    8 ( edit) couper [article, film] ; supprimer [scene] ; we cut the film to 90 minutes nous avons réduit le film à 90 minutes ; I cut the article from 3,000 to 2,000 words j'ai réduit l'article de 3 000 à 2 000 mots ;
    9 ( reduce) baisser [price, rate] ; réduire [cost, expenditure, inflation, list, number, staff, wages] (by de) ; diminuer [length, size, working day, salary] ; comprimer [budget] ; we've cut prices by 10% on a baissé les prix de 10% ; we've cut the amount of time we spend on the phone nous passons moins de temps au téléphone ;
    10 ( grow) to cut a tooth percer une dent ; to cut one's teeth faire ses dents ;
    11 ( switch off) éteindre [headlights] ;
    12 ( record) faire, graver [album] ; tracer [track] ;
    13 Comput couper [paragraph, section] ; cut and paste couper-coller ; cut the first paragraph and paste it in at the end coupez le premier paragraphe et collez-le à la fin ;
    14 Games couper [cards, deck] ;
    15 ( dilute) couper [drink, drugs] (with avec) ;
    16 ( intersect) [line] couper [circle] ; [track] couper [road] ;
    17 ( stop) cut the chatter arrêtez de jacasser ; cut the flattery/sarcasm! assez de flatteries/sarcasme! ; cut the crap ! arrête de déconner ! ;
    18 ( fail to attend) sécher [class, lesson] ; ne pas aller à [meeting, conference] ;
    19 ( snub) ignorer, snober [person] ; she cut me dead in the street elle m'a complètement ignoré dans la rue ;
    20 Cin ( splice) monter.
    C vi ( p prés - tt- ; prét, pp cut)
    1 (slice, make an incision) couper ; this knife cuts well ce couteau coupe bien ; cardboard cuts easily le carton est facile à couper ; cut along the dotted line coupez suivant les pointillés ; will the cake cut into six? tu crois que le gâteau fera pour six? ; to cut into entamer [cake, pie] ; couper [fabric, paper] ; inciser [flesh, organ] ;
    2 (move, go) to cut across the park couper à travers le parc ; our route cuts across Belgium notre itinéraire traverse la Belgique ; the lorry cut across my path le camion m'a coupé la route ; to cut down a sidestreet couper par une petite rue ; to cut in front of sb ( in a queue) passer devant qn ; ( in a car) faire une queue de poisson à qn ;
    3 Cin the camera cut to the president la caméra s'est braquée sans transition sur le président ; to cut from the street to the courtroom [camera] passer de la rue à la salle d'audience ;
    4 Games couper ; to cut for the deal couper les cartes pour déterminer qui va donner ;
    5 fig to cut into ( impinge on) empiéter sur [leisure time, working day].
    D v refl ( p prés - tt- ; prét, pp cut) to cut oneself se couper ; to cut oneself on the foot/chin se couper au pied/menton ; to cut oneself on broken glass se couper avec un morceau de verre ; to cut oneself a slice of meat se couper une tranche de viande ; cut yourself some cake coupe-toi un morceau de gâteau.
    1 (sliced, sawn) [fabric, rope, pages, timber] coupé ; ready-cut slices tranches prédécoupées ;
    2 ( shaped) [gem, stone] taillé ; a well-cut jacket une veste bien coupée ; the trousers are cut wide le pantalon est coupé large ;
    3 ( injured) [lip] coupé ; to have a cut finger/knee avoir une coupure au doigt/genou ;
    4 Agric, Hort [hay] fauché ; [grass, flowers] coupé ;
    5 ( edited) [film, text] avec coupures (after n).
    to be a cut above sb/sth être supérieur à qn/qch ; to cut and run fig fuir, partir en courant ; to cut both ways [argument, measure] être à double tranchant ; to have one's work cut out to do avoir du mal à faire.
    cut across [sth]
    1 ( bisect) [path] traverser [field] ;
    2 ( transcend) [issue, disease] ne pas tenir compte de [class barriers, boundaries, distinctions] ;
    cut across [sb] interrompre.
    cut along se dépêcher.
    cut at:
    cut at [sth] attaquer [trunk, branches] ; taillader [rope] ; tailler dans [hair, stone].
    cut away:
    cut away [sth] enlever [dead wood, diseased tissue].
    cut back:
    cut back faire des économies (on de) ;
    cut back [sth], cut [sth] back
    1 ( reduce) réduire [production, spending, staffing levels] (to à) ; limiter [expansion] (to à) ;
    2 ( prune) tailler.
    cut down:
    cut down réduire sa consommation ; ‘would you like a cigarette?’-‘no, I'm trying to cut down’ ‘veux-tu une cigarette?’-‘non merci, j'essaie de fumer moins’ ; to cut down on réduire sa consommation de [alcohol, fatty foods] ;
    cut down [sth], cut [sth] down
    1 ( chop down) abattre [forest, tree] ;
    2 ( reduce) réduire [consumption, spending, number, time, scale] (from de, to à) ;
    3 ( trim) couper [carpet, curtains] ; couper [article, film] ;
    cut [sb] down littér [disease] emporter liter [person] ; to cut sb down to size rabattre le caquet à qn.
    cut in:
    cut in
    1 ( interrupt) ( in conversation) intervenir ; ( in dancing) s'interposer ; ‘what about me?’ he cut in ‘et moi, alors?’ dit-il en interrompant la discussion ; ‘may I cut in?’ ( on dance floor) ‘vous permettez (que je danse avec madame)?’ ; to cut in on sb ( in conversation) interrompre qn ;
    2 ( in vehicle) the taxi cut in in front of me le taxi m'a fait une queue de poisson ;
    cut [sb] in mettre qn dans le coup ; they cut me in on the deal ils m'ont mis dans le coup.
    cut off:
    cut off [sth], cut [sth] off
    1 ( remove) couper [hair, piece, slice, top, corner] ; enlever [excess, crusts] ; to cut off one's finger se couper le doigt ; to cut off sb's head/fingers couper la tête/les doigts à qn ; she had all her hair cut off elle s'est fait couper les cheveux très court ;
    2 ( reduce) to cut 1% off inflation réduire l'inflation de 1% ; they've cut 10% off their prices ils ont baissé leurs prix de 10% ; it cut 20 minutes off the journey cela a raccourci le trajet de 20 minutes ; she cut ten seconds off the world record elle a amélioré le record mondial de dix secondes ;
    3 ( disconnect) couper [gas, power, telephone, water, supply lines] ;
    cut off [sth]
    1 ( suspend) supprimer [allowance, grant] ; suspendre [financial aid] ;
    2 ( isolate) [tide, army] couper [area, town] ;
    3 ( block) bloquer [retreat, escape route] ;
    cut [sb] off
    1 Telecom couper qn ;
    2 ( disinherit) déshériter qn ; he cut me off without a penny il ne m'a pas laissé un sou ;
    3 ( interrupt) interrompre qn ; she cut me off in mid-phrase elle m'a interrompu en plein milieu d'une phrase ;
    cut [sb] off, cut off [sb] ( isolate) [group, person] couper [person] ; to be cut off by the tide se faire surprendre par la marée ; to feel cut off se sentir coupé ; to cut oneself off se couper (from de).
    cut out:
    cut out [engine, fan] s'arrêter ;
    cut out [sth] supprimer [alcohol, fatty food] ;
    cut [sth] out, cut out [sth]
    1 ( snip out) découper [article, piece, shape] (from dans) ;
    2 ( remove) enlever [tumour] (from de) ; couper [reference, sentence] ; supprimer [scene, chapter] ;
    3 ( block out) boucher [view] ; éliminer [draught, noise, vibration] ;
    4 ( stop) cut the noise out! arrêtez de faire du bruit! cut out the laughing/fighting! arrêtez de rire/de vous disputer! ; cut it out! ça suffit! ;
    cut [sb] out
    1 ( isolate) exclure qn ; to cut sb out of one's will déshériter qn ;
    2 to be cut out for teaching/nursing être fait pour être professeur/infirmière ; he's not cut out to be a teacher il n'est pas fait pour être professeur.
    cut short:
    cut short [sth], cut [sth] short abréger [holiday, visit, discussion] ; to cut the conversation short couper court ;
    cut [sb] short interrompre.
    cut through [sth] [knife, scissors] couper [cardboard, plastic] ; [detergent] attaquer [grease] ; [whip] fendre [air] ; [boat] fendre [water] ; [person] éviter [red tape] ; [voice] traverser [noise].
    cut up:
    cut up US chahuter ;
    cut [sth] up, cut up [sth] couper [food, meat, onions] ; disséquer [specimen] ; [murderer] couper [qch] en morceaux [corpse] ; to cut sth up into strips/pieces couper qch en bandes/morceaux ;
    cut [sb] up
    1 ( wound) [gangster] taillader [victim] ;
    2 ( upset) to be very cut up être très affecté (about, by par) ;
    3 Aut faire une queue de poisson à.

    Big English-French dictionary > cut

  • 19 Armstrong, Sir William George, Baron Armstrong of Cragside

    [br]
    b. 26 November 1810 Shieldfield, Newcastle upon Tyne, England
    d. 27 December 1900 Cragside, Northumbria, England
    [br]
    English inventor, engineer and entrepreneur in hydraulic engineering, shipbuilding and the production of artillery.
    [br]
    The only son of a corn merchant, Alderman William Armstrong, he was educated at private schools in Newcastle and at Bishop Auckland Grammar School. He then became an articled clerk in the office of Armorer Donkin, a solicitor and a friend of his father. During a fishing trip he saw a water-wheel driven by an open stream to work a marble-cutting machine. He felt that its efficiency would be improved by introducing the water to the wheel in a pipe. He developed an interest in hydraulics and in electricity, and became a popular lecturer on these subjects. From 1838 he became friendly with Henry Watson of the High Bridge Works, Newcastle, and for six years he visited the Works almost daily, studying turret clocks, telescopes, papermaking machinery, surveying instruments and other equipment being produced. There he had built his first hydraulic machine, which generated 5 hp when run off the Newcastle town water-mains. He then designed and made a working model of a hydraulic crane, but it created little interest. In 1845, after he had served this rather unconventional apprenticeship at High Bridge Works, he was appointed Secretary of the newly formed Whittle Dene Water Company. The same year he proposed to the town council of Newcastle the conversion of one of the quayside cranes to his hydraulic operation which, if successful, should also be applied to a further four cranes. This was done by the Newcastle Cranage Company at High Bridge Works. In 1847 he gave up law and formed W.G.Armstrong \& Co. to manufacture hydraulic machinery in a works at Elswick. Orders for cranes, hoists, dock gates and bridges were obtained from mines; docks and railways.
    Early in the Crimean War, the War Office asked him to design and make submarine mines to blow up ships that were sunk by the Russians to block the entrance to Sevastopol harbour. The mines were never used, but this set him thinking about military affairs and brought him many useful contacts at the War Office. Learning that two eighteen-pounder British guns had silenced a whole Russian battery but were too heavy to move over rough ground, he carried out a thorough investigation and proposed light field guns with rifled barrels to fire elongated lead projectiles rather than cast-iron balls. He delivered his first gun in 1855; it was built of a steel core and wound-iron wire jacket. The barrel was multi-grooved and the gun weighed a quarter of a ton and could fire a 3 lb (1.4 kg) projectile. This was considered too light and was sent back to the factory to be rebored to take a 5 lb (2.3 kg) shot. The gun was a complete success and Armstrong was then asked to design and produce an equally successful eighteen-pounder. In 1859 he was appointed Engineer of Rifled Ordnance and was knighted. However, there was considerable opposition from the notably conservative officers of the Army who resented the intrusion of this civilian engineer in their affairs. In 1862, contracts with the Elswick Ordnance Company were terminated, and the Government rejected breech-loading and went back to muzzle-loading. Armstrong resigned and concentrated on foreign sales, which were successful worldwide.
    The search for a suitable proving ground for a 12-ton gun led to an interest in shipbuilding at Elswick from 1868. This necessitated the replacement of an earlier stone bridge with the hydraulically operated Tyne Swing Bridge, which weighed some 1450 tons and allowed a clear passage for shipping. Hydraulic equipment on warships became more complex and increasing quantities of it were made at the Elswick works, which also flourished with the reintroduction of the breech-loader in 1878. In 1884 an open-hearth acid steelworks was added to the Elswick facilities. In 1897 the firm merged with Sir Joseph Whitworth \& Co. to become Sir W.G.Armstrong Whitworth \& Co. After Armstrong's death a further merger with Vickers Ltd formed Vickers Armstrong Ltd.
    In 1879 Armstrong took a great interest in Joseph Swan's invention of the incandescent electric light-bulb. He was one of those who formed the Swan Electric Light Company, opening a factory at South Benwell to make the bulbs. At Cragside, his mansion at Roth bury, he installed a water turbine and generator, making it one of the first houses in England to be lit by electricity.
    Armstrong was a noted philanthropist, building houses for his workforce, and endowing schools, hospitals and parks. His last act of charity was to purchase Bamburgh Castle, Northumbria, in 1894, intending to turn it into a hospital or a convalescent home, but he did not live long enough to complete the work.
    [br]
    Principal Honours and Distinctions
    Knighted 1859. FRS 1846. President, Institution of Mechanical Engineers; Institution of Civil Engineers; British Association for the Advancement of Science 1863. Baron Armstrong of Cragside 1887.
    Further Reading
    E.R.Jones, 1886, Heroes of Industry', London: Low.
    D.J.Scott, 1962, A History of Vickers, London: Weidenfeld \& Nicolson.
    IMcN

    Biographical history of technology > Armstrong, Sir William George, Baron Armstrong of Cragside

  • 20 Cartwright, Revd Edmund

    [br]
    b. 24 April 1743 Marnham, Nottingham, England
    d. 30 October 1823 Hastings, Sussex, England
    [br]
    English inventor of the power loom, a combing machine and machines for making ropes, bread and bricks as well as agricultural improvements.
    [br]
    Edmund Cartwright, the fourth son of William Cartwright, was educated at Wakefield Grammar School, and went to University College, Oxford, at the age of 14. By special act of convocation in 1764, he was elected Fellow of Magdalen College. He married Alice Whitaker in 1772 and soon after was given the ecclesiastical living of Brampton in Derbyshire. In 1779 he was presented with the living of Goadby, Marwood, Leicestershire, where he wrote poems, reviewed new works, and began agricultural experiments. A visit to Matlock in the summer of 1784 introduced him to the inventions of Richard Arkwright and he asked why weaving could not be mechanized in a similar manner to spinning. This began a remarkable career of inventions.
    Cartwright returned home and built a loom which required two strong men to operate it. This was the first attempt in England to develop a power loom. It had a vertical warp, the reed fell with the weight of at least half a hundredweight and, to quote Gartwright's own words, "the springs which threw the shuttle were strong enough to throw a Congreive [sic] rocket" (Strickland 19.71:8—for background to the "rocket" comparison, see Congreve, Sir William). Nevertheless, it had the same three basics of weaving that still remain today in modern power looms: shedding or dividing the warp; picking or projecting the shuttle with the weft; and beating that pick of weft into place with a reed. This loom he proudly patented in 1785, and then he went to look at hand looms and was surprised to see how simply they operated. Further improvements to his own loom, covered by two more patents in 1786 and 1787, produced a machine with the more conventional horizontal layout that showed promise; however, the Manchester merchants whom he visited were not interested. He patented more improvements in 1788 as a result of the experience gained in 1786 through establishing a factory at Doncaster with power looms worked by a bull that were the ancestors of modern ones. Twenty-four looms driven by steam-power were installed in Manchester in 1791, but the mill was burned down and no one repeated the experiment. The Doncaster mill was sold in 1793, Cartwright having lost £30,000, However, in 1809 Parliament voted him £10,000 because his looms were then coming into general use.
    In 1789 he began working on a wool-combing machine which he patented in 1790, with further improvements in 1792. This seems to have been the earliest instance of mechanized combing. It used a circular revolving comb from which the long fibres or "top" were. carried off into a can, and a smaller cylinder-comb for teasing out short fibres or "noils", which were taken off by hand. Its output equalled that of twenty hand combers, but it was only relatively successful. It was employed in various Leicestershire and Yorkshire mills, but infringements were frequent and costly to resist. The patent was prolonged for fourteen years after 1801, but even then Cartwright did not make any profit. His 1792 patent also included a machine to make ropes with the outstanding and basic invention of the "cordelier" which he communicated to his friends, including Robert Fulton, but again it brought little financial benefit. As a result of these problems and the lack of remuneration for his inventions, Cartwright moved to London in 1796 and for a time lived in a house built with geometrical bricks of his own design.
    Other inventions followed fast, including a tread-wheel for cranes, metallic packing for pistons in steam-engines, and bread-making and brick-making machines, to mention but a few. He had already returned to agricultural improvements and he put forward suggestions in 1793 for a reaping machine. In 1801 he received a prize from the Board of Agriculture for an essay on husbandry, which was followed in 1803 by a silver medal for the invention of a three-furrow plough and in 1805 by a gold medal for his essay on manures. From 1801 to 1807 he ran an experimental farm on the Duke of Bedford's estates at Woburn.
    From 1786 until his death he was a prebendary of Lincoln. In about 1810 he bought a small farm at Hollanden near Sevenoaks, Kent, where he continued his inventions, both agricultural and general. Inventing to the last, he died at Hastings and was buried in Battle church.
    [br]
    Principal Honours and Distinctions
    Board of Agriculture Prize 1801 (for an essay on agriculture). Society of Arts, Silver Medal 1803 (for his three-furrow plough); Gold Medal 1805 (for an essay on agricultural improvements).
    Bibliography
    1785. British patent no. 1,270 (power loom).
    1786. British patent no. 1,565 (improved power loom). 1787. British patent no. 1,616 (improved power loom).
    1788. British patent no. 1,676 (improved power loom). 1790, British patent no. 1,747 (wool-combing machine).
    1790, British patent no. 1,787 (wool-combing machine).
    1792, British patent no. 1,876 (improved wool-combing machine and rope-making machine with cordelier).
    Further Reading
    M.Strickland, 1843, A Memoir of the Life, Writings and Mechanical Inventions of Edmund Cartwright, D.D., F.R.S., London (remains the fullest biography of Cartwright).
    Dictionary of National Biography (a good summary of Cartwright's life). For discussions of Cartwright's weaving inventions, see: A.Barlow, 1878, The History and Principles of Weaving by Hand and by Power, London; R.L. Hills, 1970, Power in the Industrial Revolution, Manchester. F.Nasmith, 1925–6, "Fathers of machine cotton manufacture", Transactions of the
    Newcomen Society 6.
    H.W.Dickinson, 1942–3, "A condensed history of rope-making", Transactions of the Newcomen Society 23.
    W.English, 1969, The Textile Industry, London (covers both his power loom and his wool -combing machine).
    RLH

    Biographical history of technology > Cartwright, Revd Edmund

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